Public Schools Under Pressure

by HENRY I. WILLETT

THE attitude of the. American people towards public education during much of the first half of the century was one of uncritical trust. There was an almost “blind faith" in education on the part of the masses as the answer to the fulfillment of their hopes and aspirations for their children. During the early years of the century, however, scant thought was given by the general public to the kind of edueat ion since the curriculum of the schools afforded little diversity or flexibility. Furthermore, the majority of the parents, with little formal education themselves, were slow to analyze or criticize the school curriculum. The people generally did not concern themselves with the operation of the schools, and this lack of involvement on their part was to result over the years in a lagging financial support. You cannot improve schools — or build new ones without money.

But by 1950 a great change had occurred. Today public education has become a mirror that reflects the frustrations, doubts, and confused concepts of a people who have been caught up for the first time in a series of problems and responsibilities which cannot be solved by the old methods. Our institutions inevitably reflect our individual strengths and weaknesses. And in the uncertainty of today our public school system is under constant scrutiny and criticism.

What’s wrong with our schools?

Emerging from the pervading atmosphere of uneasiness and censure which has enveloped the nation, there are focal points of pressure upon the public schools. In the course of this discussion I shall attempt to analyze the following criticisms, which are heard repeatedly from parents today:

“ Pupils do not perform as well in academic areas as they did in former years.”This criticism is often accompanied by the comment that too much attention is being given to vocational education.

“Schools are not placing enough emphasis on the three R’s; consequently, pupils cannot read, write, or figure as well as they did in past generations.

“Schools fail to develop and to maintain good discipline.”

“The public schools are irreligious and godless.” Criticisms also come from those who feel that the schools teach too much religion and do not maintain the proper separation between church and state.

“ Educators seek to keep the control of education to themselves, and they use a mystic jargon to confuse the public.”

“Public schools emphasize coöperative action at the expense of rugged individualism, thereby tending to undermine the free enterprise system.” The more extreme critics in this area say very frankly that in their opinion the public schools are becoming socialistic. Criticism of the use of certain textbooks with an allegedly socialistic philosophy has appeared in many sections of the country. This subject will be dealt with separately in an article to follow in this series.

“Report cards contribute to a namby-pamby type of education and do not tell parents what they want to know.”

“The public schools cost too much. This issue is fundamental and will go deeper as the tax burden for our schools is increased. The cost factor is felt by some to be the real motivating drive behind many of the other criticisms.

In addition, there is a second body of criticism which stems from teachers educational administrators who wish to join hands with laymen in making necessary improvements. In their eyes, all other problems are secondary to this question: How can we recruit and hold the best teachers that our society can afford? Again, how can we educate the masses without imposing classroom enrollments that are far too large for satisfactory results? How can the needs of the slow learner be met more adequately without stultifying and watering down the intellectual performance of brighter pupils? How can the schools become more effective in developing better work habits which will dispel the idea that a person can get something for nothing?

Teachers and superintendents recognize that the public schools must play an important role in recapturing the pioneer spirit that made this nation great, and that this pioneer spirit must now be exercised in the realm of human relations, a task which is more difficult than conquering a wilderness. It will require men who can apply the scientific method to human problems, who can interpret data and suspend judgment until all the facts are available, and who possess a personal integrity that is rooted in deep spiritual convictions.

The changes in curriculum

Many curricular changes have taken place during the first half of the century; fundamentally, they have evolved out of the research and developments of the present scientific age and are not merely the result, of theories advanced by a few persuasive educators. The similarity which exists in the educational structure and curriculum of the American schools without the direction and control of a federal bureau of education is a marvel to most Europeans, and gives testimony to the fact that changes in the curriculum have developed out of basic sources that represent all parts of the United States.

Of prime importance in understanding the curriculum of today is recognition of the fact that individual differences do exist in children. In 1900 the idea was prevalent that one child could learn anything as well as any other child if he would but apply himself with equal industry. Under such a concept, ignoring differences in individual abilities, failure could be attributed only to a lack of effort and perseverance, a defect considered to be evidence of weakness in moral character.

The changes in methods

Educators continued to develop their curricular practices around these concepts until psychological research proved these early ideas to be fallacious and pointed the way to more promising practices. For example, psychologists discerned that the axiom “Practice makes perfect" was conditioned by a number of factors. Unless the thing practised had some meaning for the individual, practice alone did not produce the desired change or improvement. This change in the psychological concept of drill does not mean that it is unimportant, but that practice must be the kind that is needed and that it must take place in situations that have meaning for the learner. Consequently, modern curricular practices attempt to place the teaching of the three R’s, for example, in situations involving their continuing and purposeful use.

An older concept taught that knowledge is power, but both psychology and experience indicate that for knowledge to become power it must lead to action. Knowledge about good citizenship or good health does not necessarily produce either. Here again the modern school emphasizes the importance of knowledge, but it also attempts to involve the child in the study and practice of good health and good citizenship.

Teachers also recognize that there is a close relationship between interest and effort. Research indicates that fear and punishment are not as effective motivating forces as interest. Good conduct results less from punishment than from pleasant and friendly relationships. On the other hand, this does not mean that punishment should not be used when necessary. The skilled teacher uses many different techniques to arouse the interest of her pupils and keeps reward and punishment in the proper balance.

Proposed changes are sometimes blamed for existing inadequacies before those changes have been put into operation to a degree that would justify an accurate appraisal of results. For example, in one state the revised curriculum program was blamed for the allegedly poor preparation of college freshmen, in spite of the fact that the revised program at that time had barely been started and was being used only in the eighth grade of approximately fifteen high schools. It is important, therefore, for laymen not only to study the program and to appraise its present weaknesses but also to determine with equal care the causes for such deficiencies.

The influence of John Dewey

There are frontier thinkers among educators as in all professional and business groups. In this group of educators the name of John Dewey has gained more ardent supporters and more vehement critics than any other. His books and his influence contributed to many of the curricular changes. It was his belief that children learn by doing and thinking. He emphasized the solving of problems as being a far more desirable approach to effective learning than isolated memorization of subject matter. The emphasis that he placed upon direct experiences related to the interest of the child and compatible with the best interests of society gave impetus to the development of an expanded and vitalized curriculum.

The ambiguily that is found in some of Mr. Dewey’s writings accounts in part for the conflict that has surrounded his philosophy and embroiled some of his more zealous disciples. Worthy ol note is the fact that in his later writings he avoided the use of the word “pragmatism" because of the misinterpretation that he felt had been given to certain statements by some of his followers. In fact, as early as 1928 he expressed strong disagreement with many of the so-called “progressive" practices of that period.

It is possible to differ with Dewey’s concept of truth, his ideas about religion, and some of his educational views and still be aware of the fact that he did expound and clarify certain important educational truths which have withstood the careful tests of research. These truths cannot be tossed lightly aside because one of their most persuasive exponents happened to propose certain philosophical views which were objectionable to some educators and laymen. Furthermore, there is evidence to indicate that Dewey would agree with some of the present critics of education. For example, it was Dewey himself who wrote, “It is not too much to say that a normal person demands a certain amount of difficulty to surmount in order that he may have full and vivid sense of what he is about, and hence have a lively interest in what he is doing.”He did preach a new educational philosophy for his day when he said, “It is absurd to suppose that a child gets more intellectual or mental discipline when he goes at a matter unwillingly than when he goes at it out of the fullness of his heart,”but few educators now would fail to agree with the validity of this statement.

In the flush of enthusiasm for new practices some schools did try to make changes too rapidly, and some went to extremes in allowing too much freedom and in giving too little direction. Such cases helped to build a resistance to any changes and to give the word “progressive” a connotation in education that has become undesirable. Education is now passing through a very wholesome period when it is attempting to sift out the best of the old and the new. Out of the discussions, appraisals, and dissensions there is emerging a program which attempts to translate knowledge into desirable action.

The broad and flexible curriculum (that at times admittedly became too broad and too flexible) has now reached the point in the shakedown where few people indeed would wish our secondary schools to return to the narrow, restricted program of the past. It should be remembered, however, that in a broad program choices have to be made. Therefore, parents and pupils, with the assistance of the school, need to select courses with great care in light of what, the pupil expects to do.

More pupils are staying in schools for a much longer period of time, but approximately 50 per cent of the pupils who enter school do not stay until graduation, and a satisfactory terminal program for this group has not yet been developed.

Vocational versus general education

Public schools still tend to do a better job of college preparation than they do in preparing the group that is not college bound. In the first place there has been considerable lost motion over the question of vocational versus general education. Too frequently, both parents and teachers have felt that vocational education was primarily for those who could not pass academic subjects. They have failed to recognize that a pupil with low intelligence could not be, for example, a successful electrician, Consequently, highly technical vocational subjects often became the dumping ground for those pupils who had been unable to find success elsewhere. Since business represented one of the earlier vocational subjects introduced into the public high schools, it became all too common to find among high school graduates pupils of low capacity who were proficient in the use of the typewriter but who lacked the ability to spell and to use acceptable English.

Today both parents and educators are becoming more realistic. Vocational education is being recognized as having a place for many pupils, but the fitting of the individual to the job requires careful guidance and close coöperation with the community. The more expensive guidance functions of placement and follow-up have too frequently been done poorly or not at all. Business leaders, often with just cause, have felt that school administrators were unwilling to give attention to their suggest ions and criticisms. On the other hand, businessmen have been tardy in listening lo what the school had to offer and in using resources that were available&emdsah; at times even failing to check with the schools to see if a prospective employee had actually graduated from high school as claimed on the personnel application.

It is encouraging to note that the humanities are being revitalized and that their importance in the curriculum for the less gifted child as well as for the gifted is also being recognized. The present improved situation is partly the result of belter clarification of the purposes and functions of vocational education. Some people may not be able to understand Milton’s Paradise Lost, but it is important for them to read and interpret newspapers and magazines accurately not only as a means of cultural advancement and personal enjoyment, but also as an essential part of the requirement for successful employment and intelligent citizenship. Work with the hands is often used by good teachers to help give meaning lo subjects and areas that some pupils learn poorly, if at all, in the abstract. The conflict between vocational education and the humanities is being resolved with mutual helpfulness. The humanities are less likely to maintain an aura of respectabilily by looking askance at such functional areas as vocational training, and people generally are recognizing that for many persons languages may have vocational values that equal their cultural implications. No other generation has read as much as the present one. This fact is indicated by school records, magazine sales, and public library reports. Certainly the battle for better cultural tastes and appreciation has not yet been won, but progress is being made even in the face of a new and vigorous competition from various media that succumb to mediocrity. The increased knowledge of and enthusiasm for good music is an encouraging example of how the people will improve their tastes when given a reasonable opportunity.

The three R’s

This question may then be raised: “We admit that a broad, more flexible curriculum is necessary today, but what about the quality of pupils’ performances, particularly in the three R’s?" There is sufficient evidence to indicate that today’s pupil can generally outperform his earlier cousins in the three It’s. For example, Dr. Ralph Tyler made a comprehensive study of the reading abilities of persons inducted into the Armed Services during World War I and during World War II and established the fact that the average inductee was reading on the sixth grade level in World War I and on the tenth grade level in World War II. In the First World War an illiterate was a person who could not read at all, while in the Second World War those persons were classified as illiterate who read below the fourth grade level.

The identical tests that were given to boys and girls several generations ago have been given to a number of boys and girls of the same age today, and with few exceptions the modern child performs as well or better on the same test. This comparison does not take into consideration the fact that such subjects as history and science today cover an everincreasing scope. If a fair appraisal is sought, it must also be remembered that schools today include nearly all the children up to the age of sixteen or beyond, while a few generations ago it was only “the cream of the crop" of the teen-agers who were found in school.

The secondary schools have been evaluated more in terms of the academic success of their graduates in college than by any other single standard. The majority of public school educators would not agree that this type of evaluation is always a fair appraisal, because it fails to take into account the quality of the instruction in the college, nor does it usually differentiate those students who are recommended by the secondary school from those who may have been admitted by the college for reasons other than scholastic ability. However, despite the cries which are heard that high school graduates cannot read and that colleges must teach reading, outstanding graduates of the public schools have generally continued to make the same excellent records in college. There are many high schools whose graduates in college pass a higher percentage of classes than is the percentage of promotion in those high schools themselves. Furthermore, the public schools will be found to supply their full quota of honor graduates in college.

Good discipline

The discussion thus far has dealt with the more formal curricular areas. What about the effects of less formalized procedures upon the youth of today? Is it true that discipline has been abandoned and that freedom means doing as you please? It is usually safe to say that the best evidence of good discipline and youth citizenship that is to be found in the community will be found in the schools. If the reader doubts the correctness of this statement or feels that it is not true in his community, I suggest that he visit first his schools and then the homes and other places that serve young people. The schools today place much emphasis on self-discipline, but teachers and administrators recognize that external discipline must be applied promptly and positively when self-discipline fails. The greatest blow to good discipline has come from those few parents who wish disciplinary measures applied to their neighbors’ children but not to their own. Many people have an entirely false impression of t be discipline that public schools try to foster in the face of tremendous difficulties. The antisocial acts of a few make the front page headlines, but the fact that 90 to 95 per cent behave reasonably well has little dramatic appeal. Compare the treatment and spread which would be given to the following two items of information:—

High school boy arrested for defacing white columns at the entrance to high school building.

The student councils of two high schools work out plan that promotes good sportsmanship between schools at competitive contests.

The best schools today place emphasis on the type of discipline that grows out of self-control and responsibility. Pupils not reacting favorably to this approach meet firm and positive action in the form of external controls. These schools try to be firm but fair. Punishment is directed more toward correction than retribution.

It is true that today’s youngsters are more exuberant and express themselves more freely, but they are also more honest in saying what they think. Good discipline emphasizes constructive action rather than repressive conformity. Furthermore, the automobile and other developments of this scientific age present problems and temptations unknown fifty years ago; and the youth in our schools are accepting more responsibility than ever before to create a climate of opinion that is favorable to good citizenship. A visit to any good student council in action will demonstrate this point.

Religion in practice

Perhaps the most unfair criticism that has been directed at the public schools has been the allegedly godless influence. The place of religion in the schools has been thoroughly canvassed in the Atlantic. It is true that public schools do not teach sectarian religion, but they do emphasize a belief in God. The schools seek to be laboratories where moral action is encouraged and practised. It is recognized that this moral action needs the motivating power of religion, the importance of which should be and is taught in the public schools. In referring to how the public schools teach religion, L. P. Jack made the following statement: —

We teach it all day long. We teach it in arithmetic by accuracy. We teach it in language by learning to say what we mean. We teach it in history by humanity. We teach it in geography by breadth of mind. We teach it in handicraft by thoroughness. We teach it in astronomy bv reverence. We teach it on the playground by fair play.

A choir singing sacred music, children giving thanks in the cafeteria, a school character commit tee studying school behavior problems give more eloquent testimony than written words to the moral and spiritual values to be found in the public schools.

The need for plain talk

The impression that educators seek to keep the control of education to themselves is understandable. The earlier reluctance of parents to participate in vital school planning tended to develop in school people a feeling of proprietorship toward the schools which has not always been relinquished with ease and grace. Admittedly, educators have wanted to prescribe and laymen have sought their prescript ions more often than their counsel. This situation shows encouraging signs of improvement through a willingness and sometimes eagerness on the part of both educators and laymen to plan cooperatively in seeking better answers to school problems. The increasing complexity of education has made the operation of schools more difficult and the interpretation to the public more essential.

The mystic jargon that is sometimes criticized may at times have some foundation in fact, but every profession develops a number of terms that have a particularly expressive meaning for the members of the group. Educators, however, are now beginning to emphasize plain talk as never before in order to prevent misunderstandings.

Report cards

Pupil marking and reports to parents have been the subject of considerable discussion in some communities. Teachers generally feel that marking pupils is one of their most difficult tasks. The increased attention that is now being given to individual abilities, interests, and efforts has complicated the job of telling Johnny’s parents what they need to know in order to understand and cooperate with the school program. Few public schools nowmark on a purely percentage basis for several reasons. Teachers recognize that qualities of human behavior and achievement cannot be measured as accurately as a percentage mark of 85 would indicate. Furthermore, such a mark alone does not tell the parent whether or not the child could and should be doing better in relationship to his ability, nor does it point out his strengths and weaknesses.

Either separately or in combination many school systems are using formal reports with symbols such as A, B, and C, to indicate the child’s general achievement level, informal diagnostic notes that attempt to give a word picture ol the child s progress, and conferences with parents at which the child may or may not be present. There is also an increasing trend to send home samples of the pupil’s work and to invite parents to the school to observe, study, and appraise the child’s progress.

Marks and pupil reports arc for the primary purpose of keeping essential records, interpreting the child’s progress, and soliciting the coöperation of the home. It is very important, therefore, that careful study and planning take place between educators and parents in determining the most effective tvpe of pupil reports that can be used in a given community.

Do public schools cost too much?

This question must be answered by the public; but educators have opinions on and some knowledge of the subject. There has never been a realistic relationship between the amount of money spent on public education and what the public schools were expected to accomplish. The people must decide whether education should be considered as a poor relation for whose sustenance they are required by necessity to provide, or whether appropriations for public schools represent a triple-A investment in the greatest resource of any and every community. The amount spent for educational purposes as compared with amounts spent for many other items and services, including luxuries, would indicate that the importance of education in our democracy is not yet realized; and the hour is growing late.

What can the citizen do?

Educators believe that the schools have done a good job in the face of great difficulties. They also realize perhaps more than anyone else that they must do a better job. The responsibility for such an achievement cannot rest on the professional group alone, who are presumably employed to develop and operate the kind of schools that the people want and are willing to finance. This fact suggests that the first step must be to involve a greater number of people in determining the job of the schools. Much of the present criticism is a result of non-agreement and misunderstanding relating to areas of school responsibilities. What is the job of the schools? The answer must stem from the will of the people. The question is how to ascertain what the people really want. School problems are too numerous and too complex to be settled by popular vote except on a few basic issues. School boards and administrators must find a variety of ways to answer this question.

More people must visit schools and see at first hand what is going on in order to dissipate rumors and to correct misinformation. Administrators can help immeasurably in making this an easy task.

The citizen has many other opportunities to keep informed about what the schools are doing. He should take an active interest in the P.T.A. and in citizens’ committees for better schools. If none of these is available, he has a responsibility to help organize such a group. Many school boards and administrators are appointing committees to help study important problems.

Nearly all communities have organizations to sponsor discussion groups on important educational issues ranging from “Use of phonics in teaching reading” to “Reasons why we need a $10,000,000 bond issue for new schools.” The local press, magazines, radio and television programs, annual reports of school boards, books on current educational problems, interpretative bulletins, school visitation, and questions directed to persons in authority are only some of the sources of information available to a citizen who is interested in the schools of his community.

There is one other source that is readily available but too infrequently used—namely, the child in school. Any school principal can tell you how often the mother has to nudge the father to stand up when the name of his child’s teacher is called in the P.T.A. meetings. If you would know something about the school program, then know the teacher of your child at least as well as you know your barber or the mechanic who repairs your automobile.

The shortage of teachers and classrooms

Greater involvement of people in their schools will automatically help to improve the status and importance of public education in the community. Laymen must take the lead in securing greater financial support. The problem is accentuated by a shortage of teachers and classrooms. At the present rate of recruitment we are running behind at the rate of 100,000 teachers a year. Equally serious is the problem of obtaining and holding the best possible teachers, as contrasted with the employment of any available person who holds even an emergency certificate.

It has been estimated that there is a shortage of 340,000 classrooms with 10,000,000 children already attending school on double shifts. We need an estimated 117,000 additional classrooms annually to keep up with our growing requirements. If we add the facilities necessary to take care of the mentally and physically handicapped and to provide certain desirable resources not now generally available to all children, we can get some idea of the road ahead. But money alone will not solve these problems.

Improving the status of teachers

Teacher status in the community must be quickly raised if any hope is to be entertained for other aspects of the program. This change in status will involve much higher salaries in many communities. An improvement in teacher status will be stimulated by higher standards of teacher training and performance. These standards apply not only to professional training but to intellectual capacity, cultural background, character, and personality.

Status also involves the attitude and respect of other people. Teachers must be accepted by the community as members of a worthy professional group and treated accordingly. Teaching must be a respected profession that a reasonable number of a community’s outstanding citizens will be pleased to have their sons and daughters choose.

Teachers must be given more realistic teaching loads, not to make the job easy, but to give them a reasonable chance to experience the satisfactions that come from reaping the rewards of doing an observable and commendable job. They also need time to take part in community activities. The teacher who would stimulate pupils must himself be stimulated.

Public education in the United States has reached adolescence, but not maturity. Like most adolescents, its size overshadows its experience and perspicuity as it attempts to operate in an everchanging situation. The recent rapidity of its growth produces a natural expectancy far beyond ils present ability. The pressure is on the public schools. It could result in power under proper control and direction, or it could cause a series of weakening eruptions that would be destructive to our way of Life. What the outcome will be must rest primarily with citizens who care enough to want the best for their children. The issue is not whether public education is better than it was a generation or two ago, but whether it is the force that it can and must be if democracy and the free world are to survive.

The second article in this series, “Teaching Is Hard Work,”by Sarah C. Caldwell of the Akron Public Schools, will appear in the November Atlantic.